Enterprise Architecture for Digital Business

Chapter 1. Form Follows Function

Lori MacVittie, F5 principal technical evangelist

The way businesses operate has changed over the past 20 years, with even more dramatic changes occurring in just the past 5 years. As businesses continue their rapid transformation from physical to digital, enterprise architecture must also transform to support it. As a technology leader, you will be directly or indirectly involved with guiding and executing this transformation.

This is no small task. Enterprise architecture as a discipline was established and standardized in the late 20th century, before the wide adoption of the internet and digital business models. The organization you work for likely has an enterprise architecture in place—one that was developed decades ago and has remained largely unchanged.

The 20th-century architect Louis Sullivan, mentor of the still celebrated Frank Lloyd Wright, coined the maxim, “Form follows function.” This principle is often applied to software engineering, in which the “function” is the business process, and the “form” is the enterprise architecture. The premise is that if the architecture prescribes how a business operates, the business will be constrained and unable to adapt to changing conditions. Therefore, as the function of business transforms from physical to digital, the form of the enterprise architecture must also transform.

In this chapter, we discuss key technology trends driving new functions into business and the changes needed in enterprise architecture to enable a successful transformation into a digital business. Grady Booch, codeveloper of the Unified Modeling Language and creator of the Booch object-oriented software development method, says this:

Architecture represents the significant decisions, where significance is measured by cost to change.¹

That transformation must be strategic, not only tactical, and encompass the whole of the enterprise architecture. A digital business has no component, no cog in the wheel, that does not contribute to or play a significant role in the success of the architecture. As has been true throughout history, standardization serves as a powerful transformational force, forever changing the course of industries and nations. It should be no surprise that standardization has a significant role in enterprise architecture transformation.

Standardization Spurs Innovation

Three thousand years ago, Hammurabi carved in stone a set of 282 rules standardizing commercial and judicial practices that today is remembered as the Code of Hammurabi. It is recognized as the first set of codified laws and standards. Hammurabi could not have known the impact this invention would eventually have on history.

Since that time, standards have been used in every era to guide, enforce, and encourage humanity in all its endeavors. From ensuring fairness of trade through gold and weight standards and protecting our well-being through safety standards, to ensuring the interoperability of devices that make the internet possible, standards have a significant impact on society, technologies, and business.

Figure 1-1 highlights several notable moments in standardization. What isn’t shown is the incredible innovation that occurred as a result of that standardization. The Gutenberg printing press did more than standardize the process of printing. That standardization significantly reduced reliance on manual methods of production, which spurred greater production of books—and literacy—across societies. This led to the Protestant revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, from which the foundations for modern science developed and drove the establishment of universal education. The impact of the printing press is seen in the innovation of the “digital press,” which continues to rely on principles developed by Johannes Gutenberg and innovated on to facilitate modern communication. The innovation resulting from the invention of and standardization on Gutenberg’s printing press was dramatic and long-lasting.

Figure 1-1. Every period of momentous innovation was preceded by a significant standardization

Standardization has served as the catalyst for the transformation of industries and societies for thousands of years. From Gutenberg to TCP/IP, from Henry Ford to the anticipated standardization of 5G, standardization has focused on efficiencies that ultimately increase the velocity of innovation.

Henry Ford’s assembly line—the mechanical manifestation of standardization—is heralded as marking the start of the Industrial Revolution. While some might view his famous quote, “Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants, so long as it is black,” in a negative light, it reflects the reality that standardization of the processes automated by the assembly line required what is often viewed as compromise—but you will recognize as significant architectural decisions. Henry Ford chose efficiency and improved quality over more color options. The efficiency gained led to industry expansion that ultimately resulted in innovation as a competitive advantage. Those innovations ultimately gave us color choices and more options than Henry Ford could ever have imagined.

When businesses ran headlong into similar barriers to scale in the mid-1950s—namely, manual, tedious, human-executed processes—they turned to the modern equivalent of the assembly line: digitization. Business tasks and processes were turned into applications. For example, corporate payroll activities have long been serviced by applications. It was an early form of digitization, but digitization, nonetheless.

While this initial effort resulted in the desired growth of business, the lack of standardization into the 1980s in software, architectures, and even networking resulted in a new set of inefficiencies. Every project started from scratch, with no blueprint or guidance as to how to proceed. There were no best practices, textbooks, or reference architectures.

The Emergence of Architectural Standards

Enterprise architecture has a long history, reaching back to the 1960s when Professor Dewey Walker penned multiple manuscripts on Business Systems Planning. Perhaps inspired by the success of Henry Ford in manufacturing to standardize components and processes, one of Walker’s students, John Zachman, would formulate a standardized version in the late 1980s. The principles and framework Zachman laid out would grow into the discipline we know today as enterprise architecture.

The Role of an Enterprise Architecture Framework

An enterprise architecture framework defines how to create and use an enterprise architecture. An enterprise architecture describes the business capabilities, processes, and elements needed to operate the business and then maps them to tools, technologies, and practices. An architecture framework provides principles and practices for creating and using the architecture description of a system. It structures architects’ thinking by dividing the architecture description into domains, layers, or views, and offers models—typically, matrices and diagrams—for documenting each view. This allows for making systemic design decisions on all the components of the system and making long-term decisions around new design requirements, sustainability, and support.

While the Zachman Framework, as it is now called, is still one of the most broadly used frameworks, it is not the only one. Another effort, begun in the 1960s, would culminate in a more technical approach: The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF). TOGAF remains the guide by which an estimated 80% of Global 50 companies design and implement the enterprise architectures on which business relies.² First developed in the mid-1990s and published as an official standard by the Open Group in 1995, TOGAF remains a powerful force in the industry. As recently as 2019, it has been recommended as a foundational component to cloud adoption.³

A Traditional Enterprise Architecture Framework

The traditional enterprise architecture framework has served organizations well into the internet age. As a technology leader, you may have been tasked with incorporating any number of emerging technologies into one of the four distinct domains that define the foundation of a traditional enterprise architecture, as shown in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2. A traditional enterprise architecture framework

The four domains are as follows:

Business

Combines key business processes, governance, company structure, and strategy into a holistic view with the goal of describing a vision of business capabilities and value to be delivered. Examples include renting a car, approving a mortgage, or scheduling an appointment.

Application

Provides an overarching view of the applications needed to support the business vision. Includes describing services and interfaces.

Data

Guides the development of logical and physical data models.

Technical

Specifies the network, compute, storage, and other hardware resources required to support and enable the overall architecture.

In recent years, TOGAF has expanded from its primary technical focus to encourage a more holistic view of enterprise architecture as a way to support business strategy. This is unsurprising, as rapid and often dramatic changes in society and technology have collided and demand a new approach to enterprise architecture. While we believe the existing TOGAF is insufficient to support a digital business, it is a strong foundation on which to expand and derive a modernized version that can enable a digital business.

Key Digital Trends Indicate the Need for a New Digital Framework

It would be foolish to ignore the impact of the COVID pandemic on the digital transformation journey. While it is true that organizations have constantly adjusted business and technology strategies based on changes in society and technical advancements, no external event has accelerated change at the rate of the global reaction to the pandemic since the birth of enterprise architecture.

The resulting digital trends have dramatically impacted society, business, and technology. Digital is the new default. This is true across IT for businesses serving consumers and business alike, and acts as a forcing function to seriously evaluate the capabilities of your existing enterprise architecture. Four of these trends, detailed next, have a significant impact on the enterprise architecture.

The Digital Workforce

As a result of the pandemic, 88% of all organizations worldwide mandated or encouraged remote work.⁴ Nearly half (46%) of patients now use telehealth services.⁵ A staggering 80% of consumers indicate that a mobile app is their primary interface for financial services.⁶

Significant redistribution of the workforce has also begun, spearheaded by the technology industry. By 2025, an estimated 70% of the workforce is expected to be working remotely from home at least five days a month.⁷

While not immediately obvious, this will encourage a more geographically distributed workforce. Analysis of LinkedIn data indicates that Madison, WI, and Richmond, VA, “attracted tech talent at a rapid pace between April and October this year [2020], compared with a year prior. Madison, for instance, gained 1.77 tech workers for each one that left.” Conversely, coastal cities such as Sacramento, San Francisco, and New York have seen losses of technical talent.⁸ This distribution only reinforces the need for digitization, as it becomes the default engagement model across nearly every industry, including education and governments.

The impact of digitization on skills and talent is also seen inside traditional industries. Today, auto manufacturers are automating even more of the manufacturing process, leading to even greater efficiencies. But the impact on the workforce means reimagining the role of human beings, which is leading to new skill sets such as “mechatronics, a blend of mechanical and electrical engineering, computer control, and information technology.”⁹

This pattern of technological change resulting in new roles and skill sets within business is repeating across every industry, with new skill sets and roles such as data scientists, SRE operations, and AI-related engineers growing as necessary technical domains within every enterprise.

Struggling to Scale

Digital services, whether newly launched or existing, have all experienced failures to scale during the pandemic. Zoom, Microsoft 365, Microsoft Azure, Cloudflare, Slack, and gaming provider Steam all suffered significant outages in the third quarter of 2020.¹⁰ Throughout 2021, the internet suffered several significant incidents that caused digital blackouts across the globe. Reliance on content delivery network (CDN) providers for content caching and cloud application services became a topic of concern for top technology and business leaders.¹¹

These disruptions are notable because of their broad and often global impact. They are more so because of the impact to productivity and collaboration in a distributed, digital workforce. Enterprises in other industries also suffer similar disruptions, but without the fanfare and headlines.

The inability to execute policies based on business outcomes puts the pressure back on people and processes, effectively reducing the benefits of automation.

Smart Lives

Being largely confined to our homes has driven increased interest in smart devices, resulting in significant growth in usage—especially among broadband households. And if it’s not interest that’s driven smart home use, perhaps it’s just boredom and the need to putter around the house. One-third of broadband households, and nearly half (46%) of smart door lock owners have increased usage of smart home devices during the pandemic.¹² A staggering 29 billion devices were expected to be connected to the internet by 2022.¹³ That’s in addition to the increase in mobile and laptop usage at home for remote work. The corporate perimeter has expanded to include our homes.

The result is an increase in data transfer. Analysts predict that by 2025, 75% of enterprise-generated data will be created and processed at the edge—outside a traditional centralized data center or cloud. That’s up from just 10% in 2018.¹⁴ The increase in data transfers as well as device penetration worldwide is expected to continue over the next five years, especially as 5G becomes more pervasive and enables ubiquitous connectivity.

Shared Risk

The mainstream adoption of digital as the default has resulted in an increase of digital identities. Nearly half (47%) of consumers opened a “new online shopping account while 35% had opened a new social media account and 31% an online bank account in 2020.”¹⁵ More than half (57%) of businesses are seeing higher losses because of account takeover fraud.¹⁶

But even as we focus on digital business fraud and abuse, consumers are sharing in the risk. Nearly one-fifth of consumers were affected by identity fraud last year, for a total cost to United States consumers alone of $56 billion.¹⁷ The term “identity fraud” does not properly describe the impact to the victim. The risk to the consumer is greater than financial loss, as the impact can ripple across their entire digital identity. A negative impact to their credit score as a result of significant fraud impacts the ability to rent or buy a home, a car, and even qualify for educational assistance.

Thus, the decision to engage with a digital business is not a simple one, as consumers must willingly accept the risk to their own lives. The increased risk to business and consumers from digital transactions has grown and will continue to grow as business expands its reliance on technology.

The Impact on Architecture

Digital transformation is a business journey; the way businesses operate is changing. That has always been true, but the rate of that change has radically accelerated, and the impact on every domain in a traditional enterprise architecture can no longer be ignored. Consider the following impacts on the four main domains:

Business

As a business becomes indistinguishable from the digital services that represent it, key processes, governance guidelines, organizational structure, and strategy must adapt. Digital services are rapidly becoming a product that needs as much business support as their physical counterparts.

Application

The definition of an application is changing. It is now a composite of one or more logical services, the data repositories informing them, the internal and external environments in which they execute, and the security and delivery services needed to transmit their communications among all components and to the end user.

Data

Data is expanding to include operational data (telemetry). The volume and speed at which data is generated are driving the use of ML to compensate for inefficiencies in manual analysis. About 81% of business leaders agree that obtaining and analyzing more data at even greater speeds will be a future challenge,¹⁸ and ML is one of the solutions rising to meet it. The need to react in near real time to this data is creating a need for automation to scale and secure digital services.

Technical

The computing, network, and storage resources necessary to deliver, scale, and secure applications and business services have dramatically changed the way infrastructure and application delivery are deployed, consumed, and operated. Location of data, workloads, and users is no longer centralized or fixed but includes the public cloud, edge, and endpoints. One in ten organizations already takes advantage of security and delivery technology in the data center, public cloud, and at the edge,¹⁹ which extends to smart televisions, mobile phones, and server closets in local businesses. Chapter 2 explores the edge and its impact on infrastructure.

From the perspective of architecture, the function of technology is changing to meet the needs of digital business. This is akin to changes in the way we interact with digital properties and services. Three-tier web application architectures worked well when most accessed applications from a desktop-based browser. But as mobile computing became accessible and affordable, the function of the application changed to match the way people engaged with a mobile interface. The form of the application architecture adapted, embracing an API-based approach that was better able to accommodate lower bandwidth, less computing power, and smaller screen sizes.

The challenge is that traditional enterprise architecture often lacks many of the capabilities required to enable and support the integrated “digital business” model being driven by rapid societal and technological change. Like the traditional desk, the traditional enterprise architecture function is no longer able to meet businesses’ requirements or expectations with respect to adaptability.

What is apparent, now, is that these functional changes will put pressure on organizations that cannot adequately be addressed by relying on a form designed and developed in the past. Instead, a modernized architectural framework is needed to enable technology to adapt on demand to the changing conditions, locations, capabilities, and costs of operating in a digital world.

Modernizing Architecture

Enterprise architecture touches every department, business unit, and employee. Most of today’s workforce have never seen a paper paycheck or waited in line at a bank to deposit it on payday. In fact, a study on banking habits at large found that “99% of Gen Z and 98% of millennials use a mobile banking app for a wide range of tasks, including viewing account balances, checking their credit score, and depositing a check.”²⁰ Digital attitudes are not confined to employees’ lives away from work; they bring those perspectives and expectations to the digital services provided by their employer. Our economy is largely digital, which has broader impacts on business than are immediately obvious.

For example, as businesses progress on their digital transformation journeys, the digital services, and the systems that support them, will generate significant amounts of data—more than human beings can process, let alone use to make decisions. This, in turn, forces a reliance on ML and AI to rapidly analyze data and provide insights that aid in decision making. As you consider modernizing architecture, these capabilities must be taken into consideration to avoid being one of the 85% of organizations that have encountered obstacles resulting in failure despite prioritizing AI- and ML- related projects.²¹ An overarching data strategy is needed, one that takes into consideration data standards, ownership, delivery, discoverability, and governance. We dive into that in Chapter 4.

All these transformations have a profound impact on the products and services available to consumers. First, many more connections exist between applications, services, and systems. These introduce challenges with security and create more data in the form of logs, metrics, and traces that must be collected, analyzed, and acted on to meet performance, availability, and security expectations. Legal implications for data arise, with respect to privacy and compliance with regulations. People must be trained to use and troubleshoot new systems quickly, as employees, partners, and customers are increasingly impatient with technology that fails. Lastly, new technologies such as containers and environments like edge computing complicate traditional processes and frustrate the ability to consistently apply policies that protect data and applications.

New skills, such as those of data scientists and performance engineers, are needed to manage the increasingly heterogeneous and diverse set of technologies. The impact of a fully digital business ultimately drives toward the need for an adaptive architecture built on automation and fueled by data.

Thus, business needs an architecture through which it can adapt to changing needs and requirements across all key components: data, applications, infrastructure, and security. Moreover, it needs to add architectural concepts to address the growing dependence on telemetry and automation that is enabling business to become truly digital. Business needs a digital enterprise architecture.

A Digital Enterprise Architecture Framework

In the same spirit that TOGAF and the Zachman Framework were developed—that of laying a foundation to efficiently scale business through technology—we see a need to modernize enterprise architecture with a digital framework. In a digital business, the domain distinctions of the traditional architecture remain largely intact, with notable shifts and additions:

Business

Combines key business processes, governance, company structure, and strategy into a holistic view with the goal of describing a vision of business capabilities and value to be delivered via digital services. Specifies key service-level objectives (SLOs) for digital experiences.²²

Application delivery

Provides an overarching view of the technologies, application workloads, and interfaces required to deliver, optimize, and secure digital services.

Data

Guides development of logical and physical data models for both operational and informational data, as well as algorithms and models needed for analytics.

Technical

Specifies the network, compute, storage, and other hardware resources required to support and enable the overall architecture, but includes concepts of location (data center, cloud, and edge) as well as integrations with operations.

Operations

Describes the processes and practices necessary to operate in an increasingly autonomic environment, harnessing telemetry and automation to meet business SLOs.

Security

Provides governance over processes to ensure privacy, comply with regulations, and safeguard data. Specifies tools and technologies needed to meet policies with respect to the security of every architectural domain.

From these domains and their relationships, we can derive the digital enterprise architecture framework in Figure 1-3. The diagram illustrates how existing and new domains in an enterprise architecture intersect to address the challenges of operating as a digital business.

Figure 1-3. Digital enterprise architecture framework

This digital enterprise architecture describes new domains, some of which incorporate core concepts, and domains from traditional enterprise architecture:

Applications and digital services

This domain incorporates the business domain from traditional enterprise architecture. It transforms business entities, processes, and products into their digital complements—namely, applications and digital services. The majority (82%) of modern businesses already deliver digital services to a broad set of consumers (employees, partners, and customers).²³ As businesses continue to digitize and progress on their digital transformation journey, they will continue to expand their existing digital portfolio, and innovation will produce new lines of business and opportunities that manifest as new digital services.

Application delivery

This new domain recognizes that digital capabilities to distribute and deliver the applications, and digital services that represent business components, processes, and products, are required in a modern architecture. As business continues to become primarily digital, capabilities to ensure availability and maintain acceptable user experiences become critical to the business. These capabilities must be represented in a modern architecture. Chapter 3 explores this domain.

Data architecture and governance

Data is an integral part of the traditional enterprise architecture, and its importance to the digital business is only expanding with the inclusion of the operational data (telemetry) needed to monitor and operate digital services. This domain needs modernization as the increased volume and nature of operational data is different from traditional customer and product-related data. Both, however, benefit in a modernized enterprise architecture from the adoption of data-related operational practices and approaches that enable data mining for both business and operational insights. Data is key to enabling a digital business to adapt and innovate. Chapter 4 explores this domain.

Infrastructure and systems

The traditional technical domain must be updated to focus on the expanding infrastructure footprint of a digital business. The ability to operate across multiple public clouds, edge computing, and core data centers is necessary to keep digital services working at scale across the globe. This domain necessarily includes everything from hardware to operating systems and environments, incorporating models that make it possible to operate efficiently at scale. This domain is the subject of Chapter 2.

Automation and observability

A digital business relies on operational data (telemetry) to monitor the health and condition of all the components required to operate a digital service—from infrastructure, to data, to delivery and security. With every domain component generating telemetry, a digital business must be able to ingest, analyze, and act on insights to adapt in real time to conditions that threaten the user experience or the security of corporate and customer data. This domain is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

Security architecture, ops, and governance

The role of security in enterprise architecture, like application delivery, has long been viewed as an add-on capability rather than as a full component with equal weight to other architectural domains. As you move toward a fully digital business, protecting digital assets and data becomes more critical. This is particularly true as businesses become inseparable from digital services. Security practices, tools, processes, and architecture must shift left and become a continuous practice in every domain. Chapter 5 explores this domain.

SRE operations

This domain may at first appear to be a focus on organizational change, as SRE is often viewed as a specific role rather than a domain, but SRE operations is more than a title or a role. According to Wikipedia, “Site reliability engineering is a set of principles and practices that incorporates aspects of software engineering and applies them to infrastructure and operations problems.” This domain fulfills the need described by 65% of technology leaders that identified real-time digital operations as necessary to accelerating the pace of innovation in their organization.²⁴ SRE operations is the focus of Chapter 7.

The remainder of this book covers these domains, starting with infrastructure and systems. We then explore application delivery, then move to data, and then security. Finally, we dive into automation and observability and into SRE operations. Each chapter describes the impact of trends and changes in technology and the resulting architectural principles required to adapt and thrive in a digital-as-default age.

¹ “Grady Booch,” Wikiquote, last updated May 14, 2019, https://oreil.ly/U6U2g.

² Bob Reselman, “TOGAF and the History of Enterprise Architecture,” Red Hat, September 14, 2020, https://oreil.ly/TjRo0.

³ Nina Anggraini et al., “Cloud Computing Adoption Strategic Planning Using ROCCA and TOGAF 9.2: A Study in Government Agency,” Procedia Computer Science 161, no. 3 (January 2019): 1316–1324, https://oreil.ly/13H44.

⁴ Iva Marinova, “28 Need-to-Know Remote Work Statistics of 2022,” Review 42, January 17, 2022, https://oreil.ly/eJO59.

⁵ Oleg Bestsennyy et al., “Telehealth: A Quarter-Trillion-Dollar Post-COVID-19 Reality?” McKinsey and Company, July 9, 2021, https://oreil.ly/lg2Qz.

⁶ Meaghan Yuen, “State of Mobile Banking in 2022,” Insider Intelligence, April 15, 2022, https://oreil.ly/RVupA.

⁷ Caroline Castrillon, “This Is the Future of Remote Work in 2021,” Forbes, December 27, 2020, https://oreil.ly/GIrZ8.

⁸ Riva Gold, “Where Are Tech Workers Headed?,” June 2021, LinkedIn, https://oreil.ly/aX6Mw.

⁹ Steve Johnson, “6 Big Changes Are Here for Auto Manufacturers,” Manufacturing.net, May 2, 2017, https://oreil.ly/jSiwL.

¹⁰ María F. Valenzuela Gómez, “‘Unable to Connect’—The Most Significant Online Service Outages in Q3 2020,” Downdetector, https://oreil.ly/xHiCO.

¹¹ Peter Judge, “Akamai Outage Was Due to ‘DNS Bug,’” DatacenterDynamics, July 23, 2021, https://oreil.ly/ZtJWe; Nick Rockwell, “Summary of June 8 Outage,” Fastly, June 8, 2021, https://oreil.ly/9V1b7; John Graham Cumming, “Cloudflare Outage on July 17, 2020,” Cloudflare Blog, July 17, 2020, https://oreil.ly/BKADW.

¹² Patrice Samuels et al., “Shifting Support Needs: Opportunities for Remote Solutions,” Parks Associates, December 2020, https://oreil.ly/EVuoZ.

¹³ Stephanie Overby, “Edge Computing by the Numbers: 9 Compelling Stats,” The Enterprisers Project, April 23, 2020, https://oreil.ly/2OKHr.

¹⁴ Rob van der Meulen, “What Edge Computing Means for Infrastructure and Operations Leaders,” Gartner, October 3, 208, https://oreil.ly/ZGaef.

¹⁵ Gilit Saporta and Shoshana Maraney, Practical Fraud Detection (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2022), https://oreil.ly/n9L3l.

¹⁶ “2020 Fraud Trends: COVID Accelerated Digital Transactions and Fraud,” Acuant, December 17, 2020, https://oreil.ly/lypCr.

¹⁷ Tejas Purinak, “Total Identity Fraud Losses Soar to $56 Billion in 2020,” Javelin Strategy and Research, March 23, 2021, https://oreil.ly/VfYhj.

¹⁸ Beth Stackpole, “Setting the Stage: The New World of Data,” CIO, October 18, 2018, https://oreil.ly/KpdZx.

¹⁹ “The State of Application Strategy in 2021,” F5, https://oreil.ly/ZQ8AC.

²⁰ Paul Lussier, “Chase 2021 Digital Banking Attitudes Study Finds Consumers Continue to Adopt Digital Banking Tools to Manage Their Finances,” Chase, December 16, 2021, https://oreil.ly/NxuY4.

²¹ Louis Columbus, “76% of Enterprises Prioritize AI and Machine Learning in 2021 IT Budgets,” Forbes, January 17, 2021, https://oreil.ly/a9tJT; Daniel Benzaquen Moreno Nechu, “Why 85% of AI Projects Fail,” Towards Data Science, November 11, 2020, https://oreil.ly/romZC.

²² A service-level objective (SLO) is not the same thing as a service-level agreement (SLA), but the two are related. An SLA is an agreement that an application owner makes with clients or users related to performance or integrity, and an SLO is any performance or integrity objective that must be met to achieve an SLA.

²³ “The State of Application Strategy in 2022,” F5, April 12, 2022, https://oreil.ly/dIwLV.

²⁴ Vivian Chan, “New Tech Leader Survey Reveals Why the Time for Real-Time Operations Is Now,” PagerDuty, November 10, 2021, https://oreil.ly/2ozvM.